government site. It is likely that even strong stimuli may be ineffective in producing an arousal during sleep if they are trivial, whereas light stimulation containing relevant information may be highly efficient. (eds.) However, they ignored that the dreams were produced by the brain. Reticulospinal and reticulobulbar tracts are involved in conveying to the motoneurons the impulses that cause oniric movements. 2. Theories on the function of REM sleep and dreaming, with which it has a contingent relationship, remain diverse. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal WebThis theory also implies that dreams are not independently functional but rather a coproduct of the sleeping brain, reflecting the dreamers physiological and psychological An official website of the United States government. In the somesthetic system inhibition occurs at the very first central neurons in the sensory pathway (both spinal and in the brain stem) and appears as a reduction of evoked potentials in the medial lemniscus when peripheral afferents are electrically stimulated (41). In 1999, Ribeiro et al., assaying zif-268 expression in control rats and in rats subjected to a rich environment training, found that in control animals this gene protein generally decreased, mainly in the cerebral cortex, from wakefulness to synchronized sleep and from synchronized to desynchronized sleep (109). Brain Res Bull 1992;28:479-84. 127. 2020 Nov 12;11:565694. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.565694. In humans, both reflex activities are also deeply inhibited during desynchronized sleep. Dreaming has been a subject of cogitation since remote Antiquity. Cien Cult 1995;47:221-34. Shiromani PJ, Lai yy, Siegel JM. Plato, despite his logical view of dreams, antecipated by 24 centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, stating that the dreams with a sexual background, mainly those with an incestuous content, and those in which the dreamer attacked or even killed someone, did, in fact, represent occult wishes that only could be fulfilled without punishment as an oniric experience. Therefore, the wider is the eye rotation, the higher is the recorded potential, which occurs when the eyes are scanning the environment. Roffwarg HP, Herman J, Lamstein S. The middle ear muscles: predictability of their phasic action in REM sleep from dream recall. Moruzzi's coined the name desynchronized sleep, which we prefer, because in humans desynchronization is the main electrophysiological marker of this phase. Eine Methodik der Ableitung localisierter Potentialschwankungen aus subcortikalen Hirngebieten. 101. Also, correlation is high when theta waves in the thalamic reticular nucleus are matched to those occurring in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1987;66:383-90. WebDream theories attempt to inform us of our deeper psychological states and shed light on the function of our dreams. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted If we dream we are walking, the electromyographic recordings from muscles involved in such behavior show quite clearly that they are not able to produce normal movements. This is specially true as to bees, that at night do interrupt their hum, "even if they are exposed to the light of a lantern". Roldan E, Weiss TT. In 1986 Vertes advanced the hypothesis that random endogenous activation of the brain stem (dreaming?) During wakefulness theta waves consistently exhibit a lesser voltage and are less regular than during desynchronized sleep, what makes it easy to tell wakefulness from desynchronized sleep from the shear inspection of the electro-oscillograms (21,30,31,125). In decerebrate cats eye movements do occur and are integrated below the midbrain (67,95). Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. In fact, it does frequently occur when movements are expressed as high frequency potentials. WebPhysiological function Theory regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways. 7. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Xenophanes, nearly 2,400 years ago, were opposed to the prevailing view of the phantastikon, that is, mystic apparitions, and to the premonitory character of dreams as their main characteristics. The site is secure. The reason for such vegetative adjustments is obviously that the nervous tissue is metabolically very demanding, so much so that 20% of the inspired oxygen goes to the nervous system. 124. Baust's data regarding the cat are also evident (38). This causes the amygdala and hippocampus to become active, which help to influence the brain systems that control sensations, memories, and emotions. Another fancy hypothesis is the one that proposes that we dream to forget, in order to delete "unwanted" information by reverse learning or unlearning (118). According to this author, in children at the age of two, when the hippocampus, which is still in the process of development at birth, becomes functional, REM sleep takes on its interpretive memory function (134). This is an additional fact to point to the activation of other mechanisms capable of producing wakefulness and desynchronized sleep, including dreaming. The tonic inhibition of motoneurons by circuits in the alphacoeruleus nucleus during desynchronized sleep is mediated by hyperpolarization of their membrane (41-43). The ancient Chinese scientific inquiry tried to understand dreaming but usually also considered them mistically. 4. Hence, experiments with such animals are extremely valuable and thus will be emphasized in the present review. Sleep 1973;2:36-42. 115. No wonder that most dreams in humans have a visual component, explaining the reason why eye movements occur in any kind of dream, alone or as part of non-visual dreams. Santos LM, Valle AC, Sameshima K, Silva MTP, Timo-Iaria C. A linear relationship between theta waves frequency and the speed of learning in rats. 130. Elsevier Publishing Company Amsterdam, 1962. 36. Recently a more acceptable evidence in favor of the consolidation hypothesis arises from the study of a gene involved in neuronal activation This gene protein, zif-268 (98), binds to a specific DNA molecule present in the promoters of a variety of genes expressed in the nervous system (99) and its up-regulation is thought to initiate a program of gene regulation leading to neuronal plasticity (100). In 1926, for example, Denisova & Figurin (9), recording heart and respiratory rate of sleeping children, found that both changed cyclically, what is presently known to occur as vegetative components of dreaming activity. 113. 15. Mirmiran M, Van den Dungen H, Uylings HBM. The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming. Unfortunately, despite the opinion of great scientists of the past, most researchers that deal with sleep and dreaming, probably moved by philosophical, religious prejudice and a faulty reasoning, do not accept the idea that non-human animals do dream. 109. During the first half of the twentieth century, despite the heavy influence of psychoanalysis, dreaming was again but sporadically studied scientifically. 38. Theta waves, discovered by Jung and Kornmller in 1938 (72), were extensively studied by Green & Arduini (73), who proved they are related to arousal. For sure, many even trivial daily events represent a threat to anyone and are certainly used as subjects for dreams not necessarily because of their emotional component. 14. However, human oniric behaviors are also expressed as lips, tongue and facial movements, as well as fingers, toes and whole limbs jerks, as described above. Sleep patterns during rearing under different environmental conditions in juveline rats. In cats, Baust (1971) recorded tachycardia starting 1 or 2 seconds before eye movements appear (38). Behav Brain Res 1997;84:109-16. Eye movements in born-blinds are probably due to a quite different reason. When the rat moves the head, for example (which may indicate a vestibular dream), heart rate goes up and may be as high as 330 bpm, similar to that occurring during attentive behavior. The .gov means its official. Central activation of autonomic effectors during mental stimulation of motor activity in man. 132. As pointed The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. Neuroscience 1997;78:13-38. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. National Library of Medicine The postynaptic inhibitory control of lumbar motoneurons during the atonia of active sleep: effect of strychnine on motoneuron properties. A nerve growth factor-induced gene encodes a possible trancriptional regulatory factor. 128. Brain 1997;120:1173-97. 85. Esoteric power, useless, useful: considerations about dreams in cognitive-behavioural therapy. Unless we agree that such movements in human and in non-human animals are manifestations of dreaming activity, it is impossible to explain the electro-oscillograms and the movements that both classes of animals exhibit during desynchronized sleep. Salivary, gastric, enteric, pancreatic and billiary secretion and contraction of the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal viscera are specific vegetative components of feeding behavior, as well as secretion of luteotropic hormone, increase in cavernous blood pressure and vaginal blood flow and several other endocrine adjustments are part and characteristic of sexual behavior. Crick F, Mitchison G. The function of dream sleep. WebThe leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. In humans, Hansotia and colleagues (34) found in humans, in accordance with our own observations in rats and cats, that oniric eye movements may be directed to one side or the other, not exclusively to one side, as stated by Vanni-Mercier and co-workers (29). During wakefulness such periods in rats are concomitant with short but complete immobilization, which is well known to occur when a high degree of attention is being directed to some external object. The neurophysiological mechanisms of the postural and motor events during desynchronized sleep. Thermoregulation is impaired in desynchronized sleep (64) but it is unlikely that body temperature changes due to dreaming activity, inasmuch as variations of temperature are slow while dreaming is a fast pace phenomenon. As such, this explanation may be interpreted as a way of doing something that we should never be allowed to do without paying for it. Doneshka & Kehaiyov (1978) reported dreams with striking vestibular sensations. The case against memory consolidation in REM sleep. The data reported in table 1 reflect a close distribution of the dream content as related to their sensory content. 2019 Oct 22;10:1127. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01127. 33. If the animal is trying to identify the source of an odor that is located at a large distance, snout movements are expected to span wide angles at low frequencies, whereas when the source is near such movements are expected to span narrow angles, at high frequencies, just as during wakefulness. Considering dreams as hallucinations, Hernndez-Pen (1966) theorized that they are possible because the system responsible for wakefulness is inactivated during sleep, releasing memory tracings which are brought to consciousness. Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming. Braun AR, Balkin TJ, Wesenten NJ, Carson RE, Varga M, Baldwin P, et al. Science 1953;118:273-4. Role of pontine tegmentum for locomotor control in mesencephalic cat. Braz J Med Biol Res 1995;28:385-96. J Neurophysiol 1946;9:165-71. (1987) suggested the occurrence of two kinds of eye movements during dreams, one associated to the very dream content, another of reflex nature, that may be involved in those occurring in children and in blind people but such a hypothesis is unlikely to be valid (35). & Bertini, M. 94. Matsuyama K, Kobaysahi y, Takakusaki M, Mosi S, Kimuta H. Termination mode and branching patterns of reticuloreticular and reticulospinal fibers of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis in the cat: an anterograde PHA-L tracing study. 10. MeSH 123. Valle AC. Stimulus response theory of dream: The stimulus response theory which existed prior to Freud is based upon the associationistic stimulus response view. This theory stresses the relationship between brain changes during sleep and changes in perceptual efficiency. Some disturbing stimuli force activity into one portion of the cerebral cortex. (ed. Such electrophysiological studies demonstrate that the abovementioned sites in the central nervous system are involved in the oniric movements but they do not prove that such structures generate them. J Sleep Res 1993;2:63-9. In cats, cortical electro-oscillograms are also desynchronized but in the hippocampus theta waves (that will be later described) predominate. 70. Ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) burst neurons: correlative evidence for neuronal generators of PGO waves. Steriade M, McCarley RW. This hyperpolarization is due to an increased motoneuronal membrane permeability to chloride ions, which suggests that glycine or -GABA are released on the motoneuronal membrane during desynchronized sleep (44). Selective deactivation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex has been found in desynchronized sleep. 44. Heiss W-D, Pawlik G, Herholz K, Wagner R, Weinhard K. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism in man during wakefulness, sleep, and dreaming. The lag between tachycardia and eye movements may be related to all the neural processes that are involved in the phases preceding adn succeeding the oniric behavior, including the very identification of the dream content. Dreams during REM sleep tend to be longer, more vivid, more story-like, and more bizarre than those during NREM sleep. Several authors also quantified the kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. Physiology and Psychology. Peyrethon J, Dusan-Peyrethon D. tude polygraphique du cycle veille-sommeil chez trois genres de rptiles. Experimental methodologies permitted investigation of the responsiveness of dreams to external stimulation and the effects of deprivation of REM sleep. Petersohn D, Schoch S, Brinkmann DR, Thiel G. The human synapsin II gene promoter. Such patterns mimic oniric eye movements, which may occur in functional coincidence or not with the visual scenes that are dreamed of. 18. Kubin L, Davies RO, Pack AI. activation-synthesis. Control of upper airway motoneurons during REM sleep. Analysis of the electro-oscillograms yields extremely relevant information that can be correlated with movements and changes in heart rate, blood pressure and respiration. The result of such conscious identification is a dream. Schmidt MH, Sakai K, Valatrix JL, Jouvet M. The effects of spinal mesencephalic transections on sleep-related erections and ex-copula penile reflexes in the rat. Xerxes, in fact, had discovered an important aspect of dreams but his oracle discarded such an explanation, in favor of the mystic one. Hobson, Pace-Schott & Stickgold (2000) do not take into consideration that a single object or a brief key fact or image occurring in the day preceding a given dream may be enough to trigger an entire dreamed "story" related to it (120). Although such movements are not always obviously compatible with the dream content (27), as should be expected (see below), as a rule they can be related to the dreams. Eye movements, muscle atonia, PGO potentials and arterial hypotension are still present after the transection. We suppose, instead, inasmuch as dreams are forgotten if we are not aroused while dreaming or within ten to fifteen minutes immediately after the dream has ceased, that it may well be that dreams are forgotten because the reticular activating system is highly deactivated during desynchronized sleep and thus the memory of the dreams cannot be consolidated (110). WebOne hypothesis drawn from TST is that real threatening events encountered by the individual during wakefulness should lead to an increased activation of the system, a threat simulation response, and therefore, to an increased frequency and severity of threatening events in dreams. 93. Physiol Behav 1972;8:363-71. Reactivation of hippocampal ensemble memories during sleep. (eds.) Brainstem mechanisms of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. As a matter of fact, manifestations of dreaming have been identified in many species, including chickens, chimpanzees, cats, rats and in some birds. Revonsuo A. Psychosomat Med 1975;37:147-59. Lovblad KO, Thomas R, Jakod PM, Scammel T, Bassetti C, Griswold M, et al. Despite such discrepancies, however, during synchronized sleep PRT studies reveal a decrease in global cerebral energy metabolism relative to both waking and desynchronized sleep. The previous station of these nuclei is the interpeduncular nucleus, whose stimulation with carbachol caused sleep within nearly 30 seconds. It is usually taken for granted that PGO potentials are essential manifestations for the electrophysiological identification of dreaming activity but such view is not well founded. the apparitions. In rats subjected to early desynchronized sleep deprivation, ejaculation was deeply reduced in adulthood (114,115), what is a profound impairment of a very important instinctive behavior. Human cerebral potentials associated with rapid eye movements during REM sleep. Electrical potentials recorded from the medial vestibular nuclei precede eye movements by 20 to 30 milliseconds, which points to these nuclei as the last synaptic stations in the pathway that produces eye movements during desynchronized sleep. Whereas Freud was convinced that dream forgetting was an active function of repression, Hobson, Pace-Schott & Stickgold (2000) attribute the failure to recall a dream to a state-dependent amnesia caused by aminergic demodulation of the sleeping brain (120). Descending projections from the dorsolateral pontine tegmentum to the paramedian reticular nucleus of the caudal medulla in the cat. Foulkes (1982) considered that dreams are so easily forgotten because the brain in desynchronized sleep is in a "reflective state". Wallace CS, Withers GS, George VM, Clayton OF, Greenough WT. By recording potentials from large ensembles of rat hippocampal neurons related to the body position in space (place cells) during behavioral tasks, Wilson & McNaughton (87) found that neurons that fired together when the animals occupied particular locations in the environment (hence the name place cells) also exhibited an increased tendency to fire together during subsequent sleep, in comparison to sleep episodes preceding the behavioral tasks. Proc Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis. J Neurophysiol 1964;27:152-71. Nat Rev Neurosci. 41. The meaning of dreams is therefore still an unsolved problem. 25. There are two kinds of vegetative components: 1. When any part of the brain programs a behavior it sends the program to the cerebellum. Some presently available explanations seem science fiction, rather than true science. Jouvet believes that dreaming activity plays a key role during the earliest years of life and thus may be involved in continuously programming some of the most subtle reactions of our consciousness during wakefulness. To what degree, and in what way, implications can be drawn from these findings for the psychology of dreaming is controversial. Some scientists take the position that dreaming probably has no function. Baust W. Die Phnomenologie des Schlafes. In fact, when the voltage of each theta wave in one site is compared with the voltage in another site it is possible to assess the degree of coincidence or phase shift between the two sites. Web5 Theories on dreaming . Later, the Roman writer Lucretius, the first popularizer of science, in his book De Rerum Natura (1978) credited these Greek philosophers for the discovery of the characteristics of sleep and dreams (2). With the development of scientific technology, many theories of dreaming have been established. Roffwarg HP, Adrien J, Herman J, Pessah M, Spiro R, Bowe-Anders C. The middle ear muscle activity in the neurophysiology and psychophysiology of the REM state. Electrophysiologically, it has been shown that the same type of hippocampal cells that are activated during training in a radial maze are also endogenously reactivated during sleep, which accounts for memory consolidation and for a close correlation between dreams and events preceding sleep (87). When they sleep, fishes keep quiet, with no apparent movements, and then they can be easily fished with a hand.". 13. In the past, most civilizations boasted having wise people who could tell the meaning of dreams if conveniently paid for that, a fancy profession that still has its counterparts in modern nations. Maquet P, Pters J, Aerts J, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen A, Franck G. Nature. ), Brainstem Mechanisms of Behavior. WebIn a nutshell, the theory states that the biological function of dreaming is to stimulate threatening events in order to rehearse the perception of threats and how to go about 54. It has been proposed (120,123,124) that presleep mentation is infrequently incorporated in top dreams and that "naturalistic" day time events rarely enter dream content, but several authors correlated dream content to the previous day events, starting with Aristotle 2,400 years ago and with Calkins in 1893. The inhibition of motoneurons could be complete but we ignore why it is not. Changes in neuronal activity in association cortex of the cat in relation to sleep and wakefulness. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1992;2:759-63. According to Hobson, Pace-Schotter & Stickgold (2000), since image studies show activation of "limbic" and "paralimbic" structures of the forebrain during desynchronized sleep, as compared to wakefulness (120,126-128), emotion may be a primary shaper of dream plots, rather than playing a secondary role plot instigation. Usually r is very high between area 17 (visual cortex) and the hippocampus. In 1896 Weed & Halam (4) published the first quantification of dreams content. Contemporary neuroscientific theories often view dreams as epiphenomena, and many of the proposals for their biological function are contradicted by the phenomenology of dreams themselves. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Physiol Behav 1974;12:293-5. Pontine cholinergic neurons show fos-like immunoreactivity associated with cholinergically induced REM sleep. Its is noteworthy that Weed & Halam's data, published in 1896, are close to those reported by Rechtschaffen & Buchignani in 1992, which was calculated as the mean of the average of seven different studies published by other authors (40). The cycle of sleep in the rat (preliminary report). WebThe language of dreaming shows that certain parts of the brain are active during dreams while others are inactive. Later research argues that dreams are physiological, beginning with random electrical impulses deep within the brain stem. Neurosci Conscious. Much effort was devoted to searching for parallels between physiological aspects of REM sleep and characteristics of associated dreams, with modest results. Recorded tachycardia starting 1 or 2 seconds before eye movements in born-blinds are probably due to error. Tried to understand dreaming but usually also considered them mistically it is.... 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